Development and Preliminary Outcomes of a Game-Based Learning Model for Enhancing Manipulative Movement Skills in Primary Education
Vol.20,No.2(2026)
This study aimed to develop and pilot-evaluate the GAMES-MMS game-based instructional model for improving manipulative movement skills among lower-grade elementary school students. Using a research-and-development approach, the model was designed through expert validation and classroom trials, and then organized as an implementation-ready program consisting of structured games, clear procedures, progressions, and instructional cues. The pilot implementation was conducted over four weeks during regular physical education lessons using a one-group pretest–posttest design. The results showed that manipulative movement skill scores increased from 62.14 (SD = 8.22) at pretest to 77.36 (SD = 7.18) at posttest. The mean change was 15.22, 95% CI [11.83, 18.61], and the paired-samples t-test indicated a statistically significant within-group difference (t = 9.21, p < .001). The magnitude of change was large (Cohen’s d ≈ 1.6). Expert validation also indicated excellent ratings for instructional design, developmental relevance, and clarity of instructions, engagement level, and overall feasibility, supporting the model’s practical value for classroom use. The main contribution of this study lies in providing a structured, play-based instructional model that is closely aligned with the developmental characteristics of young learners and the practical needs of primary physical education. However, because the evaluation phase did not include a comparison group, the observed gains should be interpreted as preliminary evidence of feasibility and potential efficacy rather than as definitive causal effects. Future studies are needed to examine the model using controlled designs, larger and more diverse samples, follow-up assessments, and broader outcomes related to physical literacy and sustained physical activity.
Game-Based Learning; Manipulative Skills; Physical Education; Primary School Students
Abbott, R. D., & Berninger, V. W. (1993). Structural equation modeling of relationships among developmental skills and writing skills in primary- and intermediate-grade writers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85(3), 478–508. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.85.3.478
Abduh, I., Saparia, A., Jumain, J., Ziulhaq, Z., & Usba, M. (2024). The Creativity of Physical Education Teachers, Sports, and Health. Musamus Journal of Physical Education and Sport (MJPES), 6(2), Article 2. https://doi.org/10.35724/mjpes.v6i2.6060
Adewale, M. D., Azeta, A., Abayomi-Alli, A., & Sambo-Magaji, A. (2024). Impact of artificial intelligence adoption on students’ academic performance in open and distance learning: A systematic literature review. Heliyon, 10(22), e40025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e40025
Adipat, S., Laksana, K., Busayanon, K., Ausawasowan, A., & Adipat, B. (2021). Engaging Students in the Learning Process with Game-Based Learning: The Fundamental Concepts. International Journal of Technology in Education, 4(3), 542–552. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijte.169
Ah, A.-S., & S, A.-K. (2020). Incidence of Football and Futsal Injuries Among Youth in Malaysian Games 2018. Malaysian Orthopaedic Journal, 14(1), 28–33. https://doi.org/10.5704/MOJ.2003.005
Ahmad, A.-K. (2020). Incidence of Football and Futsal Injuries Among Youth in Malaysian Games 2018. Malaysian Orthopaedic Journal, 14(1), 28–33. https://doi.org/10.5704/MOJ.2003.005
Ahmed, Md. D., & Al Salim, Z. A. (2024). Provision of Quality Physical Education to enhance the motive of Physical Activity and its underlying Behavior among university students. Heliyon, 10(3), e25152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e25152
Akbari, O., & Sahibzada, J. (2020). Students’ Self-Confidence and Its Impacts on Their Learning Process. American International Journal of Social Science Research, 5(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.46281/aijssr.v5i1.462
Ali, E., Kaitlyn M, C., Hussain, A., & Akhtar, Z. (2018). The Effects Of Play-Based Learning On Early Childhood Education And Development. Journal of Evolution of Medical and Dental Sciences, 7(43), 4682–4685. https://doi.org/10.14260/jemds/2018/1044
Andika, I. M. B., Nita, P., Fahritsani, H., & Sugarwanto, S. (2024). Adaptive Sports Learning in Physical Education: Theory and Practice for Physical Education (PE) Students. Musamus Journal of Physical Education and Sport (MJPES), 6(2), Article 2. https://doi.org/10.35724/mjpes.v6i2.6098
Bailey, J. K., Andrew P. Hendry, Michael T. Kinnison, David M. Post, Eric P. Palkovacs, Fanie Pelletier, Luke J. Harmon, & Jennifer A. Schweitzer. (2024, November 1). Gross Motor Activities: A Guide to Enhancing Physical Development. Julian Nayuri. https://juliannayuri.com/gross-motor-activities-a-guide-to-enhancing-physical-development/
Bessa, C., Hastie, P., Rosado, A., & Mesquita, I. (2021). Sport Education and Traditional Teaching: Influence on Students’ Empowerment and Self-Confidence in High School Physical Education Classes. Sustainability, 13(2), 578. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13020578
Casey, A., & MacPhail, A. (2018). Adopting a models-based approach to teaching physical education. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 23(3), 294–310. https://doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2018.1429588
Chatzipanteli, A., & Adamakis, M. (2022). Social Interaction Through Structured Play Activities and Games in Early Childhood: In P. Gil-Madrona (Ed.), Advances in Early Childhood and K-12 Education (pp. 80–99). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-9621-0.ch005
Corbin, C. B. (2021). Conceptual physical education: A course for the future. Journal of Sport and Health Science, 10(3), 308–322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2020.10.004
Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2024). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design. SAGE Publications, Inc. https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/qualitative-inquiry-and-research-design/book266033
Daniels, K., Lemmens, R., Knippenberg, E., Marinus, N., Vonck, S., Baerts, J., Bergs, J., Spooren, A., Hansen, D., & Bonnechère, B. (2023). Promoting physical activity and a healthy active lifestyle in community-dwelling older adults: A design thinking approach for the development of a mobile health application. Frontiers in Public Health, 11, 1280941. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1280941
Dewi, R. tika. (2021). Development of Modification of Big Ball Game with Play Approach in Order to Develop Basic Movement Skills in Elementary School Students. Budapest International Research and Critics Institute (BIRCI-Journal): Humanities and Social Sciences.
Ding, A.-C. E., & Yu, C.-H. (2024). Serious game-based learning and learning by making games: Types of game-based pedagogies and student gaming hours impact students’ science learning outcomes. Computers & Education, 218, 105075. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2024.105075
Durlak, Weissberg, P Rogger, & Dymnicki, Allison. (2011). (PDF) Enhancing students’ social and emotional development promotes success in school: Results of a meta-analysis.
Düz, S., & Aslan, T. V. (2020). The Effect of Sport on Life Skills in High School Students. Asian Journal of Education and Training, 6(2), 161–168. https://doi.org/10.20448/journal.522.2020.62.161.168
Gall, M. D. G. J., & Borg, W. R. (2003). “Penelitian Dan Pengembangan” Yang Belum Diminati Dan Perspektifnya (Seventh). Pearson Education Inc.
Gipit, G., Abdullah, M. R., Musa, R. M., Kosni, N. A., & Musawi Maliki, A. B. H. (2017). The Effectiveness of Traditional Games intervention program in the Improvement of Form One School-Age Children’s Motor Skills Related Performance Components. Movement, Health & Exercise, 6(2). https://doi.org/10.15282/mohe.v6i2.142
González, C., Varela, J., Sánchez, P. A., Venegas, F., & De Tezanos-Pinto, P. (2021). Students’ Participation in School and its Relationship with Antisocial Behavior, Academic Performance and Adolescent Well-Being. Child Indicators Research, 14(1), 269–282. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-020-09761-5
Griffo, J. M., Hodges-Kulinna, P., Marttinen, R. H. J., & Battistella, S. (2020). A systematic review of integrative practices in physical education (2009–2018). International Journal of Educational Research, 104, 101689. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2020.101689
Grigorenko, E. L., Compton, D. L., Fuchs, L. S., Wagner, R. K., Willcutt, E. G., & Fletcher, J. M. (2020). Understanding, educating, and supporting children with specific learning disabilities: 50 years of science and practice. American Psychologist, 75(1), 37–51. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000452
Hidayat, F., Royana, I. F., & Pradipta, G. D. (2024). Development of Physical Education Learning Media for Basketball Material Based on Android-BASUKA. Musamus Journal of Physical Education and Sport (MJPES), 6(3), Article 3. https://doi.org/10.35724/mjpes.v6i3.6244
Hu, J. (2024). The Challenge of Traditional Teaching Approach: A Study on the Path to Improve Classroom Teaching Effectiveness Based on Secondary School Students’ Psychology. Lecture Notes in Education Psychology and Public Media, 50(1), 213–219. https://doi.org/10.54254/2753-7048/50/20240945
Sugiyono. (2022). Metode Penelitian Kuantitatif, Kualitatif, dan R&D. CV. Alfabeta.
Verawati, I., Dewi, R., & Ritonga, D. A. (2021). Development of Modification of Big Ball Game with Play Approach in Order to Develop Basic Movement Skills in Elementary School Students. Budapest International Research and Critics Institute (BIRCI-Journal): Humanities and Social Sciences, 4(2), Article 2. https://doi.org/10.33258/birci.v4i2.2051
Zha, H., Ding, X., & Li, W. (2025). Innovative approaches in physical education: Leveraging cognitive activation to boost student outcomes. Frontiers in Psychology, 16. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1481381
Zhang, D., Soh, K. G., Chan, Y. M., & Zaremohzzabieh, Z. (2024). Effect of intervention programs to promote fundamental motor skills among typically developing children: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Children and Youth Services Review, 156, 107320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2023.107320
Zhang, J., Geok Soh, K., Bai, X., Mohd Anuar, M. A., & Xiao, W. (2024). Optimizing learning outcomes in physical education: A comprehensive systematic review of hybrid pedagogical models integrated with the Sport Education Model. PLOS ONE, 19(12), e0311957. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0311957
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Copyright © 2026 Hendriana Sri Rejeki Sri Rejeki, Didik Purwanto, Nyoman Sukrawan, Gustaman Candra Pardini, Christian Kungku