Studia sportiva

Structure of Football Training Sessions: A Descriptive Analysis of Content and Time Allocation

2024-06-24T11:08:26+02:00

Teaching–learning processes and sports training represent two fundamental pillars in the pedagogy of any sport. In football, coaches integrate both simultaneously across all competitive levels, from grassroots to elite professional contexts. The primary aim of this study was to analyse how football coaches structure their weekly training sessions in terms of frequency, content, and time allocation. A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted with a sample of 517 coaches. Data were collected through an ad hoc questionnaire designed to capture the distribution of training sessions. The average session duration was 87.38 ± 18.57 minutes. Technical and tactical components were the most frequently included contents. On average, 2.75 ± 1.50 sessions per week were devoted to technical work (39.28 ± 26.41 minutes per session), whereas tactical work was addressed in 3.70 ± 2.81 sessions per week, with a slightly lower average duration of 28.25 ± 20.67 minutes per session. Overall, the findings indicate that coaches place comparable emphasis on technical and tactical training within their weekly planning.

Effects of Neuromuscular Training on Postural Stability and Ankle Proprioception in Volleyball Players

2026-06-03T11:41:20+02:00

Volleyball is a high-intensity sport that requires rapid directional changes, jumping, and single-leg landings, placing significant stress on the lower limbs, particularly the ankles. Impaired postural stability and ankle proprioception increase the risk of injury and reduce performance. Neuromuscular training (NMT) has been shown to enhance sensorimotor function, yet evidence in volleyball players is limited. This study aimed to investigate the effects of a 12-week neuromuscular training program on postural stability and ankle proprioception in male volleyball players. Thirty male volleyball players (age 18–24 years, ≥5 years playing experience) from Qatar were randomly assigned to either an experimental group (n = 15) or a control group (n = 15). The experimental group participated in a 12-week neuromuscular training program, three sessions per week, 30–45 minutes per session, in addition to regular volleyball training. Training included balance board and wobble board exercises, agility ladder drills, hurdle jumps, step-up/run-down activities, and mini-trampoline jumps. The control group continued routine volleyball practice without additional intervention. Pre- and post-intervention assessments included dynamic and static balance (Biodex Balance System), limit of stability, and ankle joint position sense (goniometer) for inversion and eversion. The experimental group demonstrated significant improvements in static balance indices (overall, anterior–posterior, medial–lateral; p ≤ 0.03) and ankle proprioception for inversion and eversion (p = 0.01), whereas the control group showed no significant changes. Directional components of dynamic balance, including medial–lateral control at level 6 and anterior–posterior control at level 8, also improved significantly in the experimental group (p ≤ 0.04), while overall dynamic balance and limit of stability showed non-significant changes. Twelve weeks of neuromuscular training effectively enhanced static and directional dynamic balance as well as ankle proprioception in male volleyball players. These improvements likely result from enhanced proprioceptive input, neural adaptations, and optimised coordination of lower limb muscles. Integrating neuromuscular training into volleyball conditioning programs may enhance postural control and ankle proprioceptive function in volleyball players. But the direct effects on injury prevention and sport-specific performance require further investigation.

The Effect of Cognitive–Motor Modelling-Based Teaching on the Development of Situational Awareness and Tactical Behavior Accuracy in Youth Soccer Players

2026-05-11T13:59:09+02:00

This study examined the effect of cognitive–motor modelling-based teaching on the development of situational awareness and tactical behavior accuracy in youth soccer players. Thirty male players aged 15–17 years were allocated to an experimental group (n = 15) or a control group (n = 15) using a quasi-experimental pre–post design. The experimental group completed an eight-week instructional program based on cognitive–motor modelling, while the control group followed a traditional training approach consisting of conventional technical and tactical drills without embedded cognitive–motor constraints. Situational awareness was assessed using an occlusion-based situational awareness test adapted from the temporal occlusion framework described by Schumacher et al. (2024), and tactical behavior accuracy was evaluated through decision-making analysis in small-sided game situations. Data were collected before and after the intervention and analyzed using parametric statistical tests. The experimental group showed significant improvements in situational awareness and tactical behavior accuracy (p < 0.001; very large effect sizes), whereas no significant changes were observed in the control group. The experimental group achieved improvements of 23.8% in situational awareness and 19.6% in tactical behavior accuracy, compared to only 5.6% and 3.2% in the control group. These findings indicate that cognitive–motor modelling-based teaching is an effective instructional strategy for enhancing perceptual–cognitive and tactical performance in youth soccer players. The study supports the integration of cognitively enriched training approaches into youth soccer development programs.

Why Does Soccer Performance Research Disagree? A Critical Review of Contradictory Findings and Methodological Challenges

2026-07-24T09:56:28+02:00

Soccer performance analysis has grown rapidly in recent years, yet many studies continue to report conflicting findings regarding key performance indicators. This study, using a critical, case-based narrative review approach, aims to explain why such contradictions occur, focusing on two widely examined variables: running performance and ball possession.

The reviewed literature suggests that these inconsistencies may, at least partly, be explained by recurring limitations in how performance is studied. Four recurring and plausible sources of inconsistency emerge from the selected literature: insufficient consideration of contextual variables (e.g., match status, opponent quality), differences in operational definitions (including the definition of success and the level of analysis), neglect of tactical meaning, and limitations in statistical modeling and interpretation.

The study suggests that many contradictions stem from reductionist approaches that attempt to explain match success through isolated variables, ignoring the complex and interactive nature of soccer performance. To address this issue, a set of methodological and practical recommendations is proposed, including the use of multivariable and context-aware analytical models, clearer operational definitions, improved statistical practices, and greater transparency in data reporting. In addition, the adoption of meta-analytic approaches, along with subgroup analysis, meta-regression, and publication bias assessment, is highlighted as a key strategy for synthesizing conflicting evidence.

Overall, the study suggests that contradictory findings should not be viewed simply as a weakness of the field, but as a signal of its complexity. A better understanding and integration of this complexity may contribute to more consistent, meaningful, and practically relevant insights for both researchers and practitioners.

Maximum Force of Peak Two under Progressive Schoolbag Loads and Walking Durations in Adolescent Girls Involved in Sports

2026-08-07T14:41:50+02:00

Maximum Force of Peak Two (MFP2) represents the propulsive push-off force generated during the terminal stance phase of gait and serves as an important indicator of lower-limb loading during walking. In adolescent girls involved in sports, schoolbag carriage and prolonged walking may alter MFP2, reflecting biomechanical adaptations in gait mechanics and increased mechanical demands on the musculoskeletal system. The study examined the effects of progressive schoolbag loads and walking durations on MFP2 in adolescent girls involved in sports, with particular emphasis on bilateral gait adaptations. A repeated-measures design was employed involving 69 adolescent girls actively participating in sports. Participants completed walking trials under six schoolbag load conditions (0%, 8%, 12%, 16%, 20%, and 25% of body weight) and seven walking durations (0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 minutes). MFP2 was recorded bilaterally using a Zebris Force Distribution Measurement (FDM) platform. Data were analyzed using paired-sample t-tests and repeated-measures multivariate analysis of variance. MFP2 increased significantly with progressive schoolbag loads in both feet (p < 0.001). Paired-sample analyses revealed significant left–right differences across most load and duration conditions, indicating bilateral asymmetry in propulsive force generation. Walking duration exerted a significant effect on the right foot (p < 0.001) but not on the left foot (p = 0.107). Significant load × time interactions were observed for both feet (p < 0.05), demonstrating that the influence of schoolbag load on MFP2 varied according to walking duration. Progressive schoolbag loading substantially increased MFP2 in both feet and contributed to bilateral asymmetry in propulsive force generation during walking. The findings suggest that heavier schoolbag loads, particularly when combined with prolonged walking durations, increase the mechanical demands placed on the lower limbs of adolescent girls involved in sports. These results support existing recommendations that schoolbag loads should be limited to approximately 10–15% of body weight and highlight the importance of considering both load magnitude and carriage duration when developing strategies to promote musculoskeletal health.

Development and Preliminary Outcomes of a Game-Based Learning Model for Enhancing Manipulative Movement Skills in Primary Education

2025-12-15T12:43:45+01:00

This study aimed to develop and pilot-evaluate the GAMES-MMS game-based instructional model for improving manipulative movement skills among lower-grade elementary school students. Using a research-and-development approach, the model was designed through expert validation and classroom trials, and then organized as an implementation-ready program consisting of structured games, clear procedures, progressions, and instructional cues. The pilot implementation was conducted over four weeks during regular physical education lessons using a one-group pretest–posttest design. The results showed that manipulative movement skill scores increased from 62.14 (SD = 8.22) at pretest to 77.36 (SD = 7.18) at posttest. The mean change was 15.22, 95% CI [11.83, 18.61], and the paired-samples t-test indicated a statistically significant within-group difference (t = 9.21, p < .001). The magnitude of change was large (Cohen’s d ≈ 1.6). Expert validation also indicated excellent ratings for instructional design, developmental relevance, and clarity of instructions, engagement level, and overall feasibility, supporting the model’s practical value for classroom use. The main contribution of this study lies in providing a structured, play-based instructional model that is closely aligned with the developmental characteristics of young learners and the practical needs of primary physical education. However, because the evaluation phase did not include a comparison group, the observed gains should be interpreted as preliminary evidence of feasibility and potential efficacy rather than as definitive causal effects. Future studies are needed to examine the model using controlled designs, larger and more diverse samples, follow-up assessments, and broader outcomes related to physical literacy and sustained physical activity.